On the Playwrights of Antiquity: Sophocles Part 1

       The performance arts have been a constant part of human society and culture for century upon century, and throughout it, skilled masters of entertainment have risen to bring their brilliant works to a place of respect and reverence.  Of these pioneers in play-writing,  Sophocles was one of the most bold, forging a vision of tragedy that attained a level of refinement previously unheard of. Though he wrote numerous plays, his most beloved and famous are the 'Three Theban Plays,' a trilogy that details the horrifying fall of Oedipus, the king of Thebes, and his ill-fated family.

       The first play of the trilogy, "Oedipus Rex," plays out as a sort of mystery as Oedipus frantically searches for the assassin of the previous king of Thebes, a quest that takes him back to his mysterious past, ultimately revealing his guilt as the murderer of the old king, who, in a twist was in fact Oedipus's father. Unfortunately, the tragedy is only beginning at this point as Oedipus discovers the incestuous reality of his marriage to the queen, leaving him in a position of such incredible guilt as to merit one course of action, that being self-banishment from his beloved Thebes.

      This highlights one of the more fascinating parts of Sophocles' masterpiece, the complete innocence of its protagonist.  Though Oedipus did kill the old king, it was an act of defense, while his marriage to the queen seemed obligatory upon his becoming ruler of Thebes. This makes an interesting contrast with the vast majority of tragedies as their  heroes knowingly make decisions that lead them to their downfall. For instance, in Shakespeare's most beloved tragedy,  Hamlet's violence and cruelty towards Polonius and Ophelia earn him the hatred of Laertes, the man who ultimately kills Hamlet.  On the other hand, Othello's rage, King Lear's foolishness, and Macbeth's killings all lead directly to their tragic and often bloody fates.  Though Oedipus is indeed flawed and  engages in the acts that directly bring about his doom,  his character goes about these actions without any knowledge of their deadly nature. In fact, Oedipus has a certain analogous relationship with the Biblical King David as he, like David, when confronted with the knowledge of an individual guilty of a horrific lustful sin, becomes determined to discover the vile criminal, only to find that he himself is guilty and must face the penalty.

     Another trait that brings definition to "Oedipus Rex" is its continuity.  Though the play stands on its own, its two sequels bring the story full circle and display Sophocles' epic vision of familial ruin. This imparts a special feel to the end of the play as Oedipus blindly leaves Thebes, forming a sense of eagerness in the audience to see how his story will ultimately conclude in the next two plays.

    Sophocles' playwright genius won him numerous accolades during his life and continues to awe audiences thousands of years later, earning him a well-deserved position as one of the first masters of artistic expression in the performing arts.  His Three Theban Plays possess some of the most unique and fascinating attributes of classical plays and remain as some of the best  surviving examples of Grecian writing.

  

Divinity in Literature: "Madame Bovary"

Gustave Flaubert's beloved "Madame Bovary" has been hailed as the perfect novel and has received countless accolades ever since its publishing.  Such praise is, indeed, well deserved as Flaubert carefully forged a complex narrative populated by richly detailed characters amid an atmosphere of opulence and greed that leads onward to a heart-wrenching ending that elegantly pronounces its message amid tears and despair.  Such brilliance can never exist without the inclusion of a worldview, naturally leading to its view of God.  Though many Christians were initially repulsed by the scandalous nature of "Madame Bovary," its inclusion of God shines strongly and only receives further embellishment amid the worldly and sinful narrative of the story's heroine.

This illustrates an interesting mechanic of didacticism that is often ignored by Christians, that being the 'diamond amid ash principle,' a phrase popularized by Cyrano de Bergerac in his last words.  This simply states that morality can often be better taught to powerful effect by creating a narrative that is devoid of whatever principles the author endeavors to teach.  For instance, taking two very different characters of literary lore, Anne Eliot and Anna Karenina, both of which have extensively differing values, one can see an interesting contrast of moral instruction.  In Anne Eliot's tale, she remains steadfast and loyal, never faltering in her virtue, and weathering all storms to reach her blissful ending in the arms of her beloved.  Anna Karenina, on the other hand, follows the path of greed, lust, and selfishness that ultimately results in her despair and suicide.  Now, while it is immensely satisfying to see the wonderful fruits of Anne Eliot's honor and principle, the final act of self-destruction undertaken by Anna Karenina is heartbreakingly tragic and impresses its moral on the reader with an echo of finality that stays far longer than the happy exultation enjoyed by audiences of the happier Anne Eliot. 

Returning to "Madame Bovary," Gustave Flaubert wove his novel as the paragon of the 'diamond amid ash' principle in regards to divinity as the large cast of characters appear to live in a deistic world, that is to say that God has no role in the lives of the people involved in the story.  This is made evident in the book's dialogue throughout the novel, one such example being the town pharmacist's vituperative assault on God when he says, "I worship God, I assure you! I believe in a supreme being, a creator. Whoever he is-and what difference does it make?-he put us here on earth to fulfil our duties as citizens and parents," and, "My god is the god of Socrates, of Franklin, of Voltaire, of Beranger! My credo is the credo of Rousseau! I adhere to the moral principles of '89! I have no use the kind of god who goes walking in his garden with a stick, sends his friends to live in the bellies of whales, gives up the ghost wit ha groan and then comes back three days later! Those things are not only absurd, madame- they're completely opposed to all physical laws!" These lines resound through "Madame Bovary" and become an integral part of its worldview as all other circumstances appear to point to the truth of this statement.

Despite the clearly godless world of "Madame Bovary" one can definitely look through the lines and see the book's powerful message against this very worldview by showing the results of the character's, primarily Emma, the protagonist's, worship of tangible idols.  For instance, Emma puts all her trust and faith in her suitors, men who take all her love, faith, and money and move on, leaving Emma in financial and, ultimately psychological ruin, culminating in her suicide.  

Taking this even further, Madame Bovary can be read as a complex and deeply effective allegory of the relationship between man and God.  This is discerned in Emma's complete and total rejection of her loving husband, Charles, who spends the entire novel attempting to give her his warm affection and forgiveness, making him a metaphorically Christ-like figure as no matter what Emma does with her worldly suitors, he's always ready to forgive her and take her back. Unfortunately, like the sinner, Emma goes right on through life not only ignoring her husband, but developing a venomous and hateful stance against him, preventing her from ever gaining absolution and freedom from her idols and sinful lifestyle.  Emma's harrowing and painful suicide finalizes this as Gustave Flaubert skillfully reinforces Romans 6:23's powerful message: "For the wages of sin is death but the gift of God is eternal life."

"Madame Bovary" is a masterpiece, and rightly so. It's incredible depth, complex characterization, and detailed  worldview earn it its place among the world's finest novels and achieve a nearly unprecedented position, putting Gustave Flaubert among the likes of Dosteovsky and Tolstoy.  Its views of divinity are enamoring and complicated, making the work a successful foray into theological exploration, a rarely successful venture that Flaubert beautifully incorporated into his timeless novel of lost love.